Assessing the applicability of ground penetrating radar gpr techniques for estimating

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF January - February(IJARET),IAEME – IN
International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology
6480(Print), ISSN 0976 – 6499(Online) Volume 4, Issue 1,
ADVANCED RESEARCH
(2013), ©
ISSN 0976

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IJARET)
ISSN 0976 - 6480 (Print)
ISSN 0976 - 6499 (Online)
Volume 4, Issue 1, January- February (2013), pp. 114-123 IJARET
© IAEME: www.iaeme.com/ijaret.asp
Journal Impact Factor (2012): 2.7078 (Calculated by GISI) ©IAEME
www.jifactor.com

ASSESSING THE APPLICABILITY OF GROUND PENETRATING
RADAR (GPR) TECHNIQUES FOR ESTIMATING SOIL WATER
CONTENT AND IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS IN THE EASTERN
PROVINCE OF SAUDI ARABIA: A PROJECT METHODOLOGY

1 2 3 3
Omar K M Ouda , Abdullatif A. Al-Shuhail , Tawfiq Qubbaj , Rana Samara
1
Assistant Professor; Department of Civil Engineering, Prince Mohamed Bin Fahd
University, Al Khobar, KSA
2
Associate Professor of Geophysics, Earth Sciences Department, King Fahd University of
Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, KSA.
3
Visiting Research Participant, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ontario. Canada.

Abstract

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) has distinct and serious water deficit problem.
KSA lies between 16o 22’ and 32o 14’ North latitudes and 34o 29’ and 55o 40’ East
longitudes, in an arid to semi-arid climate. The country has a low average annual
precipitation ranges from 80 mm to 140 mm, with limited natural water resources. There are
no lakes, rivers, or streams; consequently, the country is increasingly dependent on fossil
groundwater resources, which receive very limited natural recharge, for intensive agriculture
and mainly for irrigation that consumes about 85% of total water supply. This paper presents
a review of the application of GPR technology to estimate soil water content (SWC),
underlines and discusses promising methodology of a two-year research project (submitted
by Al-Shuhail & Ouda, 2012) for funding by the King Abdulaziz City for Science and
Technology – Saudi Arabia. GPR technique will be used to measure agricultural field SWC
as an accurate, precise and alternative method to conventional measurements methods in the
Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. A new irrigation scheduling methods based on tested and
modified GPR technique will be introduced and applied to the common agricultural crops in
the target area. This technology transferred technique will play major role in improving the
irrigation efficiency and minimizing the agricultural water consumption.

Keywords: Saudi Arabia, Ground Penetrating Radar, GPR, Soil Water Content, Crop Water
Requirements Irrigation

114

International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET), ISSN 0976 –
6480(Print), ISSN 0976 – 6499(Online) Volume 4, Issue 1, January - February (2013), © IAEME

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), like many other countries in the Middle East,
has a distinct and serious deficit in water. KSA lies between 16o 22’ and 32o 14’ North
latitudes and 34o 29’ and 55o 40’ East longitudes as shown in Figure 1. The country total area
is about 2 million square kilometres (SGS, 2012), and it has diverse geography, the eastern
part is rocky or sandy lowland up to the Arabian Gulf, in the western part, the land rises from
the sea level to a peninsula-long mountain range called Jabal Al-Heijaz, beyond which lies
the plateau of Nejed; whereas, the south-western region of KSA contains mountains with a
height reach up to 3,000 m above the main sea level. Empty Quarter covers the southern part
of the country (SGS, 2012). The Saudi population has increased from about 7 million to
about 27 million in the last 40 years, with an annual population growth rate of 3.4% (SCDSI,
2010). This increase in population was also coupled with an increase in urbanization level,
where urban population has increased from about 50% of the total population in 1970 to
about 80% in 2000 (SCDSI, 2010).

Figure 1: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Location Map. Source: The Encyclopedia of the Earth

1.1 Water Resources
The KSA is characterized by an arid to semi-arid climate, and low average annual
precipitation ranges from 80 mm to 140 mm, with limited natural water resources; there are
no lakes, rivers, or streams. Intermittent flash floods water is captured in 260 irrigation dams,
collecting an estimated 0.6 Billion m3 per year (Ouda, 2013). Groundwater is the only
reliable natural water source on the country. KSA utilized sea water desalination as a source
for potable water supply. The current desalination plant capacity is about 1 billion Cubic
meters per year. (SWCC, 2010), which supply about 37% of municipal water demands. The

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KSA government supports the reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural and landscape
irrigation, hence several Saudi municipalities have used treated wastewater extensively for
street landscape and municipal parks irrigation. In 2010, about 240 million m3/year of the
treated wastewater have been used for landscape and crop irrigation across the country
(MWE, 2012). Water sustainable yields from both conventional and non-conventional
resources in KSA are shown in Table 1, which summarized water resources sustainable
yields and total water demand per sector in the year 2010. The table shows also the total
water demand versus supply gap of about 11.5 Billion m3 per year. This gap is typically
covered by groundwater over abstraction and depletion.

Table 1: KSA Sustainable Water Resources Yields and Water Demand in the year 2010
Water Resource Sustainable Yields Quantity (million m3/year)
Groundwater 3,850
Surface water 1,300*
Total conventional Sources 5,150
Treated wastewater 240
Desalinated water 1,050
Total non-conventional sources 1,290
Total water resource yields 6,440

Water Demand Per Sector
Domestic 2063
Industrial 800
Agricultural 15000
Total Water Demand 17,863

2010 Water Demand vs. Supply Gap 11,423
*annually variable depending on rainfall pattern

2.0 AGRICULTURE SECTOR IN SAUDI ARABIA

Agriculture is considered a main sector in KSA economy, it contributes directly in
food availability and securing food resources, also it has a positive impact on job market and
offering jobs for a wide range of people (Alam et al., 2011). In addition to its good
contribution in the gross domestic product (GDP), it offers self sufficiency ratio of different
agricultural food products, reach up to 85 % - 60 % for vegetable and fruits, respectively as
shown in Table 3 (MOA, 2011), also the various crops productivity per unit area is shown in
Figure 2. Agriculture sector is the main water consumer; about 80% of all water used by
mankind is withdrawn towards irrigation usage, where 74 % is evaporated by crops
(Sundquist, 2007). Protected irrigated agriculture is solely used for crop productions in KSA;
however, agricultural water (mainly for irrigation) consume about 85% of the total water
supplies from scarce groundwater resources as shown in Table 1 (Al Zahrani et al., 2011;
MEP 2005; World Bank, 2010).

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Table 2 Self Sufficiency Ratio OF Different Agricultural Food Products For 2010
Crops Local Net Available Sufficiency
Production Imports for Ratio
Consumption
Vegetables total 2521000 379633 2900633 86.90%
Potatoes 399000 -104808 294192 135.60%
Cucumber 221000 -5712 215288 102.70%
Water Melons 339000 -59781 279219 121.40%
Melons 267000 9215 276215 96.70%
Tomato 492000 201869 693869 70.90%
Eggplant 61000 -3772 57228 106.60%
Okra 53000 0 53000 100.00%
Fruits total 1549000 1127566 2676566 57.90%
Grapes 139000 36782 175782 79.10%
Dates 992000 -73360 918640 108%
Citrus 105000 470807 575807 18.20%
Other Fruits 313000 693337 1006337 31.10%

Source : (MOA , 2011)

30
Production Rate (MT/Hecter)

25

20 Vegetables
Date
15 All Fruits
Citrus
10 All Cereals

5

0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year

Figures 2: The productivity per unit area of different crops in Saudi Arabia

The agricultural sector has been intensively supported during the period from 1974 to 2006
by Saudi government. The support program aimed to improve the livelihood and prosperity in
rural communities. This program came with substantial increase of the cultivated area mainly
for intensive irrigated crops such as wheat. The irrigated area increased from less than 400
thousands hectare (ha) in 1971 to about 1.62 million ha in 1992 (World Bank, 2005). The
increase in irrigated agricultural area has resulted in the depletion of groundwater resources.
KSA government has decided to re-structure the agricultural sector and reconsider the
governmental support for cultivation of the high water demanding crops, such as wheat (Al-

117


Zahrani and Elhag, 2003; Al-Zahrani, 2010; Al-Zahrani and Baig, 2011). Accordingly, new
programs and policies were enacted, headed toward maximizing the efficiency of irrigation
water supply and arable land to produce high value crops such as fruits and vegetables.
(MEP, 2005, Alabdulkader et al., 2012). The newly massive policies and programs have
reduced cultivated area from peak figure of about 1.63 million ha in 1992 to about 0.85
million ha in 2009 (FAO, 2009; MWE, 2012). The reduction was mainly in cereal crops
cultivation. Figure 3 shows the drastic decrease in total area cultivated with cereal crops
within the last decade; as well as, Figure 4 shows the substantial decrease in cereal crops
production; on the contrary, the vegetable corps production is growing up.

800

700
Area (thousand hecter)

600

500 Vegetables
Date
400
All Fruits
300 Citrus
All Cereals
200

100

0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year

Figures 3: The cultivated area of different crops in Saudi Arabia

Figure 4: Total production of different crops in Saudi Arabia

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As a result of implementing the new revised Saudi water policies, the total demand for
irrigation water has been decreased, from the peak value of 18.5 billion m3/year in 1990 to
about 15 billion m3/year in 2010 with an average annual diminishing rate of -1.05% (World
Bank, 2005; MWE, 2012). Currently, the KSA government is planning to reduce the
agricultural water usage on an annual diminishing rate of 3.7% during the period from 2010
to 2014 (MEP, 2010). The proposed project will help in achieving the KSA government
objectives through presenting new approach and implementing a new technology transfer to
increase irrigation efficiency.
3.0 SOIL WATER CONTENT
Irrigation is mainly applied to compensate the shortage in soil water content. In
modern agricultural practices, monitoring the soil water content (SWC) is a crucial
component for achieving high water use efficiency, minimizing water losses by inappropriate
irrigation technique, optimizing crop quality and productivity. In addition to it is positive
environmental impact through minimizing soil salinity. Beside soil water content,
understanding of others vadose zone hydrological processes, such as evapotranspiration,
surface runoff, and groundwater recharge rate is considered very important (Steelman et al.,
2011). Several conventional methods to measure SWC are currently used; such as
gravimetric sampling, neutron probe logging, time domain reflectometry (TDR), frequency
domain reflectometry (FDR), tensiometers, gamma ray attenuation, capacitive sensors,
gypsum block measurement, and pressure plate method. SWC depends on many parameters
that are spatially and temporally variable such as soil type, vegetation cover, crop type,
topography, and precipitation. Taking into account all these varialble factors, in collecting
enough measurements for the account of the spatial variations of the vadose zone soil water
contents is neither financially nor technically practical. The remote sensing technique can be
used to estimate vadose zone water content over very large area but with very low resolution
in the range of 100 meters and typically for the top 5cm of the vadose zone. Additionally,
dense crop coverage limits the applicability of the remote sensing for vadose zone
applications. Whereas, using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is more promising for
estimating SWC at field scale. This technique has high potential to determine soil water
content with vertical resolution comparable to that of conventional pin point methods and
with an extended spatial resolution, leading to a better estimation over field size area.
Abundant research articles have documented the successful applications of GPR techniques
for SWC measurement (Chanzy et al., 1996; Overmeeren et al., 1997; Grote et al., 2003;
Grote et al., 2010; Galagedara et al., 2005; Lambot et al.; 2006; Weihermuller, et al., 2007;
Brandford 2008; Giroux et al., 2010; Mint et al., 2011).
3.1 Ground Penetrating Radar Technology
GPR technology is based on the transmission and reflection of radio waves in the soil
(Chanzy et al., 1996; Dobriyal et al., 2012). The GPR system is composed of the transmitter
antenna, which sends radio waves through the soil (Reynolds, 1997; Dobriyal et al., 2012),
and the receiver antenna which detects the reflected radio waves, where the variation in radio
wave velocity shows the electromagnetic properties of the subsurface soil (Du and Rummel,
1994). Radar antennas are manually or mechanically moved over the soil surface
simultaneously assessing the subsurface SWC (Reynolds, 1997). The collected data does not
require complicated calculations to generate three-dimensional views of the SWC (Do, 2003;
USACE, 1995). The GPR is a fast and non-destructive soil investigating method. It is capable
to determine SWC with high vertical resolution comparable to that of conventional pin point

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methods and with an extended spatial resolution, leading to a better estimate over larger areas
(Huisman et al., 2001; Al-Shuhail, 2006; Adetunji et al., 2008; Dobriyal et al., 2012). The
application of GPR techniques for the estimation of SWC in the field scale in humid to semi-
humid climate and for experimental purposes is well documented (Chanzy et al., 1996; van
Overmeeren et al., 1997; Grote et al., 2003 and 2010; Galagedara et al., 2005; Lambot et al.,
2006; Weihermuller et al., 2007; Brandford, 2008; Giroux et al., 2010; Mint et al., 2011), and
it has been successfully implemented in humid to semi humid climate for clay to silty clay
soil. On the contrary, its applicability under arid to semiarid climate is not well investigated.
Additional studies with a large set of soil textures are required (Grote et al., 2010) especially
for silty sand to sandy soil. The applicability of GPR technology for intensive agriculture
fields is not totally well investigated either. Further studies are needed to develop optimum
GPR data acquisition and processing schemes for intensive agriculture fields. The potential
for real-time efficient irrigation scheduling based on GPR soil water content estimation is
hardly investigated in previous works.
This paper underlines and discusses the promising expected results of a two-year research
project (submitted by Al-Shuhail & Ouda, 2012) for funding by the King Abdulaziz City for
Science and Technology – Saudi Arabia.
4. PROJECT METHODOLOGY
The project objectives are to assess the applicability and adaptability of the GPR
techniques to measure SWC in arid to semiarid agricultural fields in the Eastern Province of
Saudi Arabia, by design and implement various GPR data acquisition and processing
schemes; in order, to identify the optimum scheme for GPR application for SWC in target
agricultural areas, and finaly to develop software codes to calculate SWC from processed
GPR data, and another for real-time efficient irrigation scheduling based on the calculated
SWC. To achieve the stated objectives the project team will conduct a comprehensive
literature review of recent applications of GPR technology and other vadose zone water
content measurement technologies, especially for the GPR technology applicability to arid
and semiarid climate. Several field visits to different farms in the area will be conducted to
select the target farms and crop types. the selection process will be based upon a set of
criteria including: location, crop type, soil type, topography, and farm sizes. Based on the
intensive literature review various GPR data acquisition schemes (1-D, 2-D, or 3-D,
monostatic or bistatic) will be developed and be implemented in the field. The GPR data will
be processed using various processing workflows. The efficiency and accuracy of the
implemented GPR data acquisition and processing schemes will be assessed and calibrated
according to pinpoint soil water contents testing results. Two TDR units will be used for
simultaneous pin point samplings. At least three soil samples per farm will be collected and
tested for physical and chemical properties including: SWC (based on gravitational method),
soil texture, organic contents, salinity, phosphorus, and nitrogen contents. Finally the
optimum GPR data acquisition and processing scheme for SWC measurement in the studied
agricultural fields and similar areas will be selected. A workflow for inverting SWC from
processed GPR data starting from available workflows will be developed as a base for
software code for SWC inversion from processed GPR measurements. The code will be
tested on the GPR data acquired and processed through the optimum schemes. A workflow
for real-time irrigation scheduling based on SWC values inverted from GPR measurements
and software code for real-time irrigation scheduling based on SWC values inverted from
GPR measurements.

120


5.0 EXPECTED RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results and outputs of this project expected to be of a high value and benefit to
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and in particular to water sector. The project will contribute
directly to promote and support the Kingdom economic, social, security, and sustainable
development through localizing and applying an advanced technology in water management
and conservation as the following:
• It will be a pioneer project for studying innovative methods for measuring SWC for
both dominant KSA conditions and for the globe, since the GPR technology
applicability to arid-to-semiarid climate and for intensive agricultural field is not well
investigated.
• Agriculture is a major consumer of water resources; therefore, developing a
sustainable water management methods for to the KSA agriculture, and the
endogenous dominant environmental conditions is critical to increase agricultural
productivity, ensure more amount of water can be shared with other users; as well as,
maintain the environmental and social benefits of water systems.
• Determine the optimum irrigation strategy and develop an irrigation scheduling to
provide a positive impact to KSA agriculture industry. This includes, but not limited
to, the following: decrease pest infestation, decrease in water use, and decrease in
fertilizer use, decrease in energy cost, and decrease in pesticide use.
• A new technology will be transferred and introduced to KSA and in particular to the
agricultural sector in Eastern Province aiming for optimizing and scheduling
irrigation.
• A great opportunity will be offered for human capacity building. Three graduate
students and a technician will be directly involved in various project activities, to
learn and improve their capabilities and research skills.
• This project will serve as an end-user oriented project; all objects and activities will
be planned and modified to fulfill the demands and needs of target end users and
beneficiaries of this research project such as; water resources planning engineers,
agricultural engineers, geoscientists, farmers and agricultural companies working in
KSA.

6.0 CONCLUSION

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia faces a serious water shortage problem where the
current water demand is three folds the sustainable yields of both conventional and non-
conventional water resources. Agriculture sector demand is about 85% of total water demand
in the Kingdom. Applying massive measures to bridge the gap between water supply and
demand is not more an option in the Kingdom, it is a must. Therefore, KSA is planning to
decrease the agriculture water demand by 3.7% annually, through increasing water irrigation
efficiency and phasing out uneconomical crops such as cereal. This paper presents a research
project aimed towards increasing irrigation efficiency in Saudi Arabia. The project will
review the applicability of GPR technology to estimate fields SWC in the Eastern Province of
Saudi Arabia. A new irrigation scheduling methods based on tested and modified GPR
techniques will be introduced and applied to common agricultural crops in the target area.
This technology transferred technique will play a major role in improving the irrigation
efficiency and minimizing the agricultural water consumption and losses in the Kingdom.

121


The project has high scientific merits. The literature review showed that the GPR technology
applicability for intensive agriculture fields is not well investigated especially under silty
sand to sandy soils. Furthermore, the applicability of GPR technology to arid to semiarid
climate has never been studied yet. The potential for real-time efficient irrigation scheduling
based on GPR soil water content measurement is hardly investigated in previous works. This
fact highlight the global scientific value of the proposed project.
This project will be implemented as an end-user oriented project; all objects and activities
will be planned and modified to fulfill the demands and needs of target end users and
beneficiaries of this research project such as; water resources planning engineers, agricultural
engineers, geoscientists, farmers and agricultural companies working in KSA.

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